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</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks linguistics-body"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above">
<div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="Outline_of_linguistics" title="Outline of linguistics">Outline</a></li><li><a href="History_of_linguistics" title="History of linguistics">History</a></li><li><a href="Index_of_linguistics_articles" title="Index of linguistics articles">Index</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">General linguistics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">
<ul><li><a href="Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">Diachronic</a></li>
<li><a href="Lexicography" title="Lexicography">Lexicography</a></li>
<li><a href="Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">Morphology</a></li>
<li><a href="Phonology" title="Phonology">Phonology</a></li>
<li><a href="Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">Pragmatics</a></li>
<li><a href="Semantics" title="Semantics">Semantics</a></li>
<li><a href="Syntax" title="Syntax">Syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="Linguistic_typology" title="Linguistic typology">Typology</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
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<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Applied linguistics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">
<ul><li><a href="Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">Acquisition</a></li>
<li><a href="Anthropological_linguistics" title="Anthropological linguistics">Anthropological</a></li>
<li><a href="Applied_linguistics" title="Applied linguistics">Applied</a></li>
<li><a href="Mathematical_linguistics" title="Mathematical linguistics">Mathematical</a></li>
<li><a href="Computational_linguistics" title="Computational linguistics">Computational</a></li>
<li><a href="Conversation_analysis" title="Conversation analysis">Conversation analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="Corpus_linguistics" title="Corpus linguistics">Corpus linguistics</a></li>
<li><a href="Discourse_analysis" title="Discourse analysis">Discourse analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li>
<li><a href="Linguistic_distance" title="Linguistic distance">Distance</a></li>
<li><a href="Language_documentation" title="Language documentation">Documentation</a></li>
<li><a href="Ethnography_of_communication" title="Ethnography of communication">Ethnography of communication</a></li>
<li><a href="Ethnomethodology" title="Ethnomethodology">Ethnomethodology</a></li>
<li><a href="Forensic_linguistics" title="Forensic linguistics">Forensic</a></li>
<li><a href="History_of_linguistics" title="History of linguistics">History of linguistics</a></li>
<li><a href="Interlinguistics" title="Interlinguistics">Interlinguistics</a></li>
<li><a href="Neurolinguistics" title="Neurolinguistics">Neurolinguistics</a></li>
<li><a href="Philology" title="Philology">Philology</a></li>
<li><a href="Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li>
<li><a href="Phonetics" title="Phonetics">Phonetics</a></li>
<li><a href="Psycholinguistics" title="Psycholinguistics">Psycholinguistics</a></li>
<li><a href="Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">Sociolinguistics</a></li>
<li><a href="Text_linguistics" title="Text linguistics">Text</a></li>
<li><a href="Translation_studies" title="Translation studies">Translating</a> and <a href="Language_interpretation" title="Language interpretation">interpreting</a></li>
<li><a href="Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing systems</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
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<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Theoretical frameworks</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">
<ul><li><a href="Formalism_(linguistics)" title="Formalism (linguistics)">Formalist</a>
<ul><li><a href="Phrase_structure_grammar" title="Phrase structure grammar">Constituency</a></li>
<li><a href="Dependency_grammar" title="Dependency grammar">Dependency</a></li>
<li><a href="Distributionalism" title="Distributionalism">Distributionalism</a></li>
<li><a href="Generative_grammar" title="Generative grammar">Generative</a></li>
<li><a href="Glossematics" title="Glossematics">Glossematics</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Functional_linguistics" title="Functional linguistics">Functional</a>
<ul><li><a href="Cognitive_grammar" title="Cognitive grammar">Cognitive</a></li>
<li><a href="Construction_grammar" title="Construction grammar">Construction grammar</a></li>
<li><a href="Functional_discourse_grammar" title="Functional discourse grammar">Functional discourse grammar</a></li>
<li><a href="Grammaticalization" title="Grammaticalization">Grammaticalization</a></li>
<li><a href="Interactional_linguistics" title="Interactional linguistics">Interactional linguistics</a></li>
<li><a href="Prague_linguistic_circle" title="Prague linguistic circle">Prague circle</a></li>
<li><a href="Systemic_functional_linguistics" title="Systemic functional linguistics">Systemic functional</a></li>
<li><a href="Usage-based_models_of_language" title="Usage-based models of language">Usage-based</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Structural_linguistics" title="Structural linguistics">Structuralism</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
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<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">
<ul><li><a href="Autonomy_of_syntax" title="Autonomy of syntax">Autonomy of syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="Principle_of_compositionality" title="Principle of compositionality">Compositionality</a></li>
<li><a href="Conservative_and_innovative_language" title="Conservative and innovative language">Conservative and innovative language</a></li>
<li><a href="Linguistic_description" title="Linguistic description">Descriptivism</a></li>
<li><a href="Etymology" title="Etymology">Etymology</a></li>
<li><a href="Iconicity" title="Iconicity">Iconicity</a></li>
<li><a href="Internet_linguistics" title="Internet linguistics">Internet linguistics</a></li>
<li><a href="LGBTQ_linguistics" title="LGBTQ linguistics">LGBTQ linguistics</a></li>
<li><a href="Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin of language</a></li>
<li><a href="Orismology" title="Orismology">Orismology</a></li>
<li><a href="Orthography" title="Orthography">Orthography</a></li>
<li><a href="Philosophy_of_linguistics" title="Philosophy of linguistics">Philosophy of linguistics</a></li>
<li><a href="Linguistic_prescription" title="Linguistic prescription">Prescriptivism</a></li>
<li><a href="Second-language_acquisition" title="Second-language acquisition">Second-language acquisition</a></li>
<li><a href="Theory_of_language" title="Theory of language">Theory of language</a></li>
<li><a href="Terminology" title="Terminology">Terminology</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
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<p>In <a href="Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>, the <b>syntax–semantics interface</b> is the interaction between <a href="Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a> and <a href="Semantics_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantics (linguistics)">semantics</a>. Its study encompasses phenomena that pertain to both syntax and semantics, with the goal of explaining correlations between form and meaning.<sup id="cite_ref-chierchiahndbk_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chierchiahndbk-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Specific topics include <a href="Scope_(formal_semantics)" title="Scope (formal semantics)">scope</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-parteebrief_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-parteebrief-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hackl2013_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hackl2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Binding_(linguistics)" title="Binding (linguistics)">binding</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-parteebrief_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-parteebrief-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="Lexical_semantics" title="Lexical semantics">lexical semantic</a> properties such as <a href="Lexical_aspect" title="Lexical aspect">verbal aspect</a> and <a href="Mass_noun" title="Mass noun">nominal individuation</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Levin1995_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Levin1995-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-VanValin1997_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VanValin1997-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-VanValin2005p67_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VanValin2005p67-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Thematic_relation" title="Thematic relation">semantic macroroles</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-VanValin2005p67_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VanValin2005p67-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="Unaccusativity" class="mw-redirect" title="Unaccusativity">unaccusativity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Levin1995_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Levin1995-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The interface is conceived of very differently in <a href="Linguistic_formalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic formalism">formalist</a> and <a href="Linguistic_functionalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic functionalism">functionalist</a> approaches. While functionalists tend to look into semantics and pragmatics for explanations of syntactic phenomena, formalists try to limit such explanations within syntax itself.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aside from syntax, other aspects of grammar have been studied in terms of how they interact with semantics; which can be observed by the existence of terms such as <i>morphosyntax–semantics interface</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hackl2013_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hackl2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Functionalist_approaches">Functionalist approaches</h2></div>
<p>Within <a href="Linguistic_functionalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic functionalism">functionalist</a> approaches, research on the syntax–semantics interface has been aimed at disproving the formalist argument of the <a href="Autonomy_of_syntax" title="Autonomy of syntax">autonomy of syntax</a>, by finding instances of semantically determined syntactic structures.<sup id="cite_ref-Levin1995_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Levin1995-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p><a href="Beth_Levin_(linguist)" title="Beth Levin (linguist)">Levin</a> and Rappaport Hovav, in their 1995 monograph, reiterated that there are some aspects of verb meaning that are relevant to syntax, and others that are not, as previously noted by <a href="Steven_Pinker" title="Steven Pinker">Steven Pinker</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Levin and Rappaport Hovav isolated such aspects focusing on the phenomenon of <a href="Unaccusativity" class="mw-redirect" title="Unaccusativity">unaccusativity</a> that is "semantically determined and syntactically encoded".<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p><a href="Van_Valin" class="mw-redirect" title="Van Valin">Van Valin</a> and <a href="Randy_LaPolla" title="Randy LaPolla">LaPolla</a>, in their 1997 monographic study, found that the more semantically motivated or driven a syntactic phenomenon is, the more it tends to be typologically universal, that is, to show less cross-linguistic variation.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Formal_approaches">Formal approaches</h2></div>
<p>In <a href="Formal_semantics_(natural_language)" title="Formal semantics (natural language)">formal semantics</a>, <a href="Interpretation_(logic)" title="Interpretation (logic)">semantic interpretation</a> is viewed as a <a href="Map_(mathematics)" title="Map (mathematics)">mapping</a> from syntactic structures to <a href="Denotation" title="Denotation">denotations</a>. There are several formal views of the syntax–semantics interface which differ in what they take to be the inputs and outputs of this mapping. In the <i>Heim and Kratzer</i> model commonly adopted within <a href="Generative_linguistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative linguistics">generative linguistics</a>, the input is taken to be a special level of syntactic representation called <a href="Logical_form_(linguistics)" title="Logical form (linguistics)">logical form</a>. At logical form, semantic relationships such as <a href="Scope_(formal_semantics)" title="Scope (formal semantics)">scope</a> and <a href="Binding_(linguistics)" title="Binding (linguistics)">binding</a> are represented unambiguously, having been determined by syntactic operations such as <a href="Quantifier_raising" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantifier raising">quantifier raising</a>. Other formal frameworks take the opposite approach, assuming that such relationships are established by the rules of semantic interpretation themselves. In such systems, the rules include mechanisms such as <a href="Type_shifter" title="Type shifter">type shifting</a> and <a href="Dynamic_semantics" title="Dynamic semantics">dynamic binding</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-chierchiahndbk_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chierchiahndbk-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hnk_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hnk-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-parteebrief_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-parteebrief-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>
<p>Before the 1950s, there was no discussion of a syntax–semantics interface in <a href="American_linguistics" class="mw-redirect" title="American linguistics">American linguistics</a>, since neither syntax nor semantics was an active area of research.<sup id="cite_ref-Partee2014_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Partee2014-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This neglect was due in part to the influence of <a href="Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">logical positivism</a> and <a href="Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">behaviorism</a> in psychology, that viewed hypotheses about linguistic meaning as untestable.<sup id="cite_ref-Partee2014_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Partee2014-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Taylor2017_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor2017-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>By the 1960s, syntax had become a major area of study, and some researchers began examining semantics as well. In this period, the most prominent view of the interface was the <i><a href="Jerrold_Katz" title="Jerrold Katz">Katz</a>–<a href="Paul_Postal" title="Paul Postal">Postal</a> Hypothesis</i> according to which <a href="Deep_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep structure">deep structure</a> was the level of syntactic representation which underwent semantic interpretation. This assumption was upended by data involving quantifiers, which showed that <a href="Syntactic_movement" title="Syntactic movement">syntactic transformations</a> can affect meaning. During the <a href="Linguistics_wars" title="Linguistics wars">linguistics wars</a>, a variety of competing notions of the interface were developed, many of which live on in present-day work.<sup id="cite_ref-Partee2014_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Partee2014-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-parteebrief_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-parteebrief-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div>
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<ul><li><a href="Active%E2%80%93stative_alignment" title="Active–stative alignment">Active–stative alignment</a></li>
<li><a href="Antecedent-contained_deletion" title="Antecedent-contained deletion">Antecedent-contained deletion</a></li>
<li><a href="Coercion_(linguistics)" title="Coercion (linguistics)">Coercion (linguistics)</a></li>
<li><a href="Colorless_green_ideas_sleep_furiously" title="Colorless green ideas sleep furiously">Colorless green ideas sleep furiously</a></li>
<li><a href="Principle_of_compositionality" title="Principle of compositionality">Compositionality</a></li>
<li><a href="David_Dowty" title="David Dowty">David Dowty</a></li>
<li><a href="Form-meaning_mismatch" title="Form-meaning mismatch">Form-meaning mismatch</a></li>
<li><a href="Morphosyntactic_alignment" title="Morphosyntactic alignment">Morphosyntactic alignment</a></li>
<li><a href="Role_and_reference_grammar" title="Role and reference grammar">Role and reference grammar</a></li>
<li><a href="Selection_(linguistics)" title="Selection (linguistics)">Selection (linguistics)</a></li>
<li><a href="Semantic_class" title="Semantic class">Semantic class</a></li>
<li><a href="Semantic_feature" title="Semantic feature">Semantic feature</a></li>
<li><a href="Semantic_primes" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantic primes">Semantic primes</a></li>
<li><a href="Semantic_property" title="Semantic property">Semantic property</a></li>
<li><a href="Shifting_(syntax)" title="Shifting (syntax)">Shifting (syntax)</a></li>
<li><a href="Split_intransitivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Split intransitivity">Split intransitivity</a></li>
<li><a href="Thematic_relation" title="Thematic relation">Thematic relation</a></li>
<li><a href="Type_shifter" title="Type shifter">Type shifter</a></li></ul>
</div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>
<div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-chierchiahndbk-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-chierchiahndbk_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chierchiahndbk_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Chierchia (1999)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-parteebrief-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-parteebrief_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-parteebrief_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-parteebrief_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-parteebrief_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Partee (2014)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Hackl2013-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hackl2013_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hackl2013_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hackl (2013)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Levin1995-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Levin1995_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Levin1995_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Levin1995_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Levin & Rappaport Hovav (1995)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-VanValin1997-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-VanValin1997_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Van Valin & LaPolla (1997)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vendler (1957)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tenny (1994)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-VanValin2005p67-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-VanValin2005p67_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-VanValin2005p67_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Van Valin (2005) p.67</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Van Valin 2003, p.334</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Since the 1970s, as a response to syntactic-oriented approaches like Chomsky's generativism, the assumption underlying many studies on <a href="Lexical_semantics" title="Lexical semantics">lexical semantics</a> has been that "syntactic properties of phrases reflect, in large part, the meanings of the words that head them" (Levin& Pinker, 1992)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Levin & Rappaport Hovav (1995) ch.1 p. 9</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pinker 1989</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Levin & Rappaport Hovav (1995) ch.5 p.179, Afterword p.279</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Van Valin (2005), ch.5 "Linking syntactic and semantic representations in simple sentences" p.128</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-hnk-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hnk_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Heim & Kratzer (1998)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Baker (2015)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Partee2014-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Partee2014_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Partee2014_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Partee2014_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Partee (2014).pp.2, 6</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Taylor2017-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Taylor2017_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Taylor (2017)</span>
</li>
</ol></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>
<ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">
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</style><cite id="CITEREFBarker2015" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="Chris_Barker_(linguist)" title="Chris Barker (linguist)">Barker, Chris</a> (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nyu.edu/projects/barker/barker-scope-handbook.pdf">"Scope"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In Lappin, Shalom; Fox, Chris (eds.). <i>Handbook of Contemporary Semantics</i> (2 ed.). Wiley Blackwell. Section 4.3. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781118882139.ch2">10.1002/9781118882139.ch2</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781118882139</bdi>.</cite></li>
<li><a href="Gennaro_Chierchia" title="Gennaro Chierchia">Chierchia, G.</a> (1999) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/chierchia/files/1999_syntaxsemanticsinterface.pdf">Syntax-semantics interface</a></i>, pp. 824–826, in: <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.mit.edu/morrishalle/pubworks/papers/1999_Halle_MIT_Encyclopedia_Cognitive_Sciences-paper.pdf">The MIT Encyclopedia of the Cognitive Sciences</a></i>, Edited by Keil & Wilson (1999) Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.</li>
<li>Hackl, M. (2013) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eclass.uoa.gr/modules/document/file.php/GS398/Hackl%202013%20syntax-semantics%20interface.pdf">The syntax–semantics interface</a></i>. Lingua, 130, 66–87.</li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFHeimKratzer1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Irene_Heim" title="Irene Heim">Heim, Irene</a>; <a href="Angelika_Kratzer" title="Angelika Kratzer">Kratzer, Angelika</a> (1998). <i>Semantics in Generative Grammar</i>. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. pp. <span class="nowrap">194–</span>198.</cite></li>
<li><a href="Beth_Levin_(linguist)" title="Beth Levin (linguist)">Levin, B.</a>, & <a href="Steven_Pinker" title="Steven Pinker">Pinker, S.</a> (1992) Introduction in Beth Levin & Steven Pinker (1992, Eds) Lexical & conceptual semantics. (A Cognition Special Issue) Cambridge, MA and Oxford: Blackwell, 1991. Pp. 244.</li>
<li><a href="Beth_Levin_(linguist)" title="Beth Levin (linguist)">Levin, B.</a>, & Rappaport Hovav, M. (1995). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fulcrum.org/concern/monographs/37720d24n">Unaccusativity: At the syntax–lexical semantics interface</a></i>. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press</li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFPartee2014" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="Barbara_Partee" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbara Partee">Partee, Barbara</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://semanticsarchive.net/Archive/zJjODVlN/ParteeSyn-SemHistory.pdf">"A brief history of the syntax-semantics interface in Western formal linguistics"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Semantics-Syntax Interface</i>. <b>1</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>20.</cite> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.academia.edu/download/40460288/SSI11.2014.pdf#page=4">[1]</a></li>
<li><a href="Steven_Pinker" title="Steven Pinker">Pinker, S.</a> (1989) <i>Learnability and cognition: The acquisition of argument structure</i>. New edition in 2013: <i>Learnability and Cognition, new edition: The Acquisition of Argument Structure</i>. MIT press.</li>
<li>Taylor, J. (2017) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-handbook-of-cognitive-linguistics/lexical-semantics/798AB6901B9AD5B0AC42C94A52EC8ECF/core-reader">Lexical Semantics</a></i>. In B. Dancygier (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics (Cambridge Handbooks in Language and Linguistics, pp. 246–261). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781316339732.017">10.1017/9781316339732.017</a></li>
<li>Tenny, C. (1994). Aspectual roles and the syntax-semantics interface (Vol. 52). Dordrecht: Kluwer.</li>
<li><a href="Robert_Van_Valin_Jr." title="Robert Van Valin Jr.">Van Valin, R. D. Jr.</a> & <a href="Randy_LaPolla" title="Randy LaPolla">LaPolla, R. J.</a> (1997) <i>Syntax: Structure, meaning, and function</i>. Cambridge University Press.</li>
<li>Van Valin Jr, R. D. (2003) <i>Functional linguistics</i>, ch. 13 in <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rl8LDiR11nYC">The handbook of linguistics</a></i>, pp. 319–336.</li>
<li><a href="Robert_Van_Valin_Jr." title="Robert Van Valin Jr.">Van Valin, R. D. Jr.</a> (2005). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HuX-3xV5BpwC&pg=PR67">Exploring the syntax-semantics interface</a></i>, Cambridge University Press.</li>
<li><a href="Zeno_Vendler" title="Zeno Vendler">Vendler, Z.</a> (1957) <i>Verbs and times</i> in <i>The Philosophical Review</i> 66(2): 143–160. Reprinted as ch. 4 of <i>Linguistics and Philosophy</i>, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press 1967, pp. 97–121.</li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>
<ul><li><a href="Ray_Jackendoff" title="Ray Jackendoff">Jackendoff, R.</a>, Levin, B., & Pinker, S. (1991). <i>Lexical and conceptual semantics</i>.</li>
<li>Jackendoff, R. (1997). The architecture of the language faculty (No. 28). MIT Press.</li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFJacobson2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Pauline_Jacobson" title="Pauline Jacobson">Jacobson, Pauline</a> (2014). <i>Compositional semantics: An introduction to the syntax/semantics interface</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780199677153</bdi>.</cite></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFPustejovsky1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="James_Pustejovsky" title="James Pustejovsky">Pustejovsky, James</a> (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=p2GJBNpBVg4C&q=%22lexical+semantics%22"><i>The Generative Lexicon</i></a>. MIT Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780262661409</bdi>.</cite></li>
<li>Wechsler, S. (2020) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-linguistics-011619-030349">The Role of the Lexicon in the Syntax–Semantics Interface</a></i>. Annual Review of Linguistics, 6, 67–87.</li>
<li>Yi, E., & Koenig, J. P. (2016) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110720297-003/html">Why verb meaning matters to syntax</a></i>, in Fleischhauer, J., Latrouite, A., & Osswald, R. (2016) <i>Explorations of the syntax-semantics interface</i> (pp. 57–76). düsseldorf university press.</li></ul>
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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Lexical_categories_and_their_features201" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Lexical_categories_and_their_features201" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Part_of_speech" title="Part of speech">Lexical categories</a> and their features</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Noun" title="Noun">Noun</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract / Concrete</a></li>
<li><a href="Adjectival_noun_(Japanese)" title="Adjectival noun (Japanese)">Adjectival</a></li>
<li><a href="Agent_noun" title="Agent noun">Agent</a></li>
<li><a href="Animacy" title="Animacy">Animacy</a></li>
<li><a href="Bare_nouns" title="Bare nouns">Bare</a></li>
<li><a href="Collective_noun" title="Collective noun">Collective</a></li>
<li><a href="Count_noun" title="Count noun">Countable</a></li>
<li><a href="Initial-stress-derived_noun" title="Initial-stress-derived noun">Initial-stress-derived</a></li>
<li><a href="Mass_noun" title="Mass noun">Mass</a></li>
<li><a href="Noun_adjunct" title="Noun adjunct">Noun adjunct</a></li>
<li><a href="Proper_and_common_nouns" class="mw-redirect" title="Proper and common nouns">Proper</a></li>
<li><a href="Relational_noun" title="Relational noun">Relational</a></li>
<li><a href="Strong_noun" title="Strong noun">Strong</a> / <a href="Weak_noun" title="Weak noun">Weak</a></li>
<li><a href="Verbal_noun" title="Verbal noun">Verbal</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Verb" title="Verb">Verb</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Attributive_verb" title="Attributive verb">Attributive</a></li>
<li><a href="Converb" title="Converb">Converb</a></li>
<li><a href="Finite_verb" title="Finite verb">Finite</a> / <a href="Nonfinite_verb" title="Nonfinite verb">Nonfinite</a></li>
<li><a href="Gerund" title="Gerund">Gerund</a></li>
<li><a href="Gerundive" title="Gerundive">Gerundive</a></li>
<li><a href="Infinitive" title="Infinitive">Infinitive</a></li>
<li><a href="Participle" title="Participle">Participle</a></li>
<li><a href="Supine" title="Supine">Supine</a></li>
<li><a href="Transgressive_(linguistics)" title="Transgressive (linguistics)">Transgressive</a></li>
<li><a href="Verbal_noun" title="Verbal noun">Verbal noun</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Ambitransitive_verb" title="Ambitransitive verb">Ambitransitive</a></li>
<li><a href="Andative_and_venitive" title="Andative and venitive">Andative / Venitive</a></li>
<li><a href="Anticausative_verb" title="Anticausative verb">Anticausative</a></li>
<li><a href="Autocausative_verb" title="Autocausative verb">Autocausative</a></li>
<li><a href="Auxiliary_verb" title="Auxiliary verb">Auxiliary</a></li>
<li><a href="Captative_verb" title="Captative verb">Captative</a></li>
<li><a href="Catenative_verb" title="Catenative verb">Catenative</a></li>
<li><a href="Compound_verb" title="Compound verb">Compound</a></li>
<li><a href="Copula_(linguistics)" title="Copula (linguistics)">Copular</a></li>
<li><a href="Defective_verb" title="Defective verb">Defective</a></li>
<li><a href="Denominal_verb" title="Denominal verb">Denominal</a></li>
<li><a href="Deponent_verb" title="Deponent verb">Deponent</a></li>
<li><a href="Ditransitive_verb" title="Ditransitive verb">Ditransitive</a></li>
<li><a href="Dynamic_verb" title="Dynamic verb">Dynamic</a></li>
<li><a href="Exceptional_case-marking" title="Exceptional case-marking">Exceptional case-marking</a></li>
<li><a href="Frequentative" title="Frequentative">Frequentative</a></li>
<li><a href="Germanic_strong_verb" title="Germanic strong verb">Germanic strong</a></li>
<li><a href="Germanic_weak_verb" title="Germanic weak verb">Germanic weak</a></li>
<li><a href="Impersonal_verb" title="Impersonal verb">Impersonal</a></li>
<li><a href="Inchoative_verb" title="Inchoative verb">Inchoative</a></li>
<li><a href="Intransitive_verb" title="Intransitive verb">Intransitive</a></li>
<li><a href="Labile_verb" title="Labile verb">Labile</a></li>
<li><a href="Lexical_verb" title="Lexical verb">Lexical</a></li>
<li><a href="Light_verb" title="Light verb">Light</a></li>
<li><a href="Modal_verb" title="Modal verb">Modal</a></li>
<li><a href="Negative_verb" title="Negative verb">Negative</a></li>
<li><a href="Performative_verb" title="Performative verb">Performative</a></li>
<li><a href="Phrasal_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Phrasal verb">Phrasal</a></li>
<li><a href="Predicative_verb" title="Predicative verb">Predicative</a></li>
<li><a href="Germanic_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic verb">Preterite-present</a></li>
<li><a href="Pure_verbs" title="Pure verbs">Pure</a></li>
<li><a href="Reflexive_verb" title="Reflexive verb">Reflexive</a></li>
<li><a href="Regular_and_irregular_verbs" title="Regular and irregular verbs">Regular / Irregular</a></li>
<li><a href="Separable_verb" title="Separable verb">Separable</a></li>
<li><a href="Stative_verb" title="Stative verb">Stative</a></li>
<li><a href="Stretched_verb" title="Stretched verb">Stretched</a></li>
<li><a href="Transitive_verb" title="Transitive verb">Transitive</a></li>
<li><a href="Unaccusative_verb" title="Unaccusative verb">Unaccusative</a></li>
<li><a href="Unergative_verb" title="Unergative verb">Unergative</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Adjective" title="Adjective">Adjective</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Anti-intersective</a></li>
<li><a href="Collateral_adjective" title="Collateral adjective">Collateral</a></li>
<li><a href="Proper_adjective" title="Proper adjective">Common</a></li>
<li><a href="Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">Demonstrative</a></li>
<li><a href="Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Intersective</a></li>
<li><a href="Nominalized_adjective" title="Nominalized adjective">Nominalized</a></li>
<li><a href="Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Non-intersective</a></li>
<li><a href="Possessive" title="Possessive">Possessive</a></li>
<li><a href="Postpositive_adjective" title="Postpositive adjective">Postpositive</a></li>
<li><a href="Proper_adjective" title="Proper adjective">Proper</a></li>
<li><a href="Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Pure intersective</a></li>
<li><a href="Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Relative subsective</a></li>
<li><a href="Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Subsective</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Adverb" title="Adverb">Adverb</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Conjunctive_adverb" title="Conjunctive adverb">Conjunctive</a></li>
<li><a href="Flat_adverb" title="Flat adverb">Flat</a></li>
<li><a href="Adverbial_genitive" title="Adverbial genitive">Genitive</a></li>
<li><a href="Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">Interrogative</a></li>
<li><a href="Locative_adverb" title="Locative adverb">Locative</a></li>
<li><a href="Prepositional_adverb" title="Prepositional adverb">Prepositional</a></li>
<li><a href="Pronominal_adverb" title="Pronominal adverb">Pronominal</a></li>
<li><a href="Relative_clause" title="Relative clause">Relative</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Pronoun" title="Pronoun">Pronoun</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Bound_variable_pronoun" title="Bound variable pronoun">Bound variable</a></li>
<li><a href="Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">Demonstrative</a></li>
<li><a href="Disjunctive_pronoun" title="Disjunctive pronoun">Disjunctive</a></li>
<li><a href="Distributive_pronoun" title="Distributive pronoun">Distributive</a></li>
<li><a href="Donkey_sentence" title="Donkey sentence">Donkey</a></li>
<li><a href="Dummy_pronoun" title="Dummy pronoun">Dummy</a></li>
<li><a href="T%E2%80%93V_distinction" title="T–V distinction">Formal / Informal</a></li>
<li><a href="Gender_neutrality_in_languages_with_gendered_third-person_pronouns" title="Gender neutrality in languages with gendered third-person pronouns">Gender-neutral</a> / <a href="Preferred_gender_pronoun" title="Preferred gender pronoun">Gender-specific</a></li>
<li><a href="Clusivity" title="Clusivity">Inclusive / Exclusive</a></li>
<li><a href="Indefinite_pronoun" title="Indefinite pronoun">Indefinite</a></li>
<li><a href="Intensive_pronoun" title="Intensive pronoun">Intensive</a></li>
<li><a href="Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">Interrogative</a></li>
<li><a href="Personal_pronoun" title="Personal pronoun">Personal</a></li>
<li><a href="Possessive" title="Possessive">Possessive</a></li>
<li><a href="Reciprocal_pronoun" title="Reciprocal pronoun">Reciprocal</a></li>
<li><a href="Reflexive_pronoun" title="Reflexive pronoun">Reflexive</a></li>
<li><a href="Relative_pronoun" title="Relative pronoun">Relative</a></li>
<li><a href="Resumptive_pronoun" title="Resumptive pronoun">Resumptive</a></li>
<li><a href="Weak_pronoun" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak pronoun">Strong / Weak</a></li>
<li><a href="Subject_pronoun" title="Subject pronoun">Subject</a> / <a href="Object_pronoun" title="Object pronoun">Object</a> / <a href="Prepositional_pronoun" title="Prepositional pronoun">Prepositional</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Preposition_and_postposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Preposition and postposition">Adposition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Casally_modulated_preposition" title="Casally modulated preposition">Casally modulated</a></li>
<li><a href="Inflected_preposition" title="Inflected preposition">Inflected</a></li>
<li><a href="Preposition_stranding" title="Preposition stranding">Stranded</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Determiner" title="Determiner">Determiner</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Article_(grammar)" title="Article (grammar)">Article</a></li>
<li><a href="Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">Demonstrative</a></li>
<li><a href="Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">Interrogative</a></li>
<li><a href="Possessive" title="Possessive">Possessive</a></li>
<li><a href="Generalized_quantifier" title="Generalized quantifier">Quantifier</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Grammatical_particle" title="Grammatical particle">Particle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Discourse_marker" title="Discourse marker">Discourse</a></li>
<li><a href="Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">Interrogative</a></li>
<li><a href="Modal_particle" title="Modal particle">Modal</a></li>
<li><a href="Noun_particle" title="Noun particle">Noun</a></li>
<li><a href="Possessive" title="Possessive">Possessive</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Classifier_(linguistics)" title="Classifier (linguistics)">Classifier</a>
<ul><li><a href="Measure_word" title="Measure word">Measure word</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Complementizer" title="Complementizer">Complementizer</a></li>
<li><a href="Conjunction_(grammar)" title="Conjunction (grammar)">Conjunction</a></li>
<li><a href="Copula_(linguistics)" title="Copula (linguistics)">Copula</a></li>
<li><a href="Coverb" title="Coverb">Coverb</a></li>
<li><a href="Interjection" title="Interjection">Interjection</a>
<ul><li><a href="Ideophone" title="Ideophone">Ideophone</a></li>
<li><a href="Onomatopoeia" title="Onomatopoeia">Onomatopoeia</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Preverb" title="Preverb">Preverb</a></li>
<li><a href="Procedure_word" title="Procedure word">Procedure word</a></li>
<li><a href="Pro-form" title="Pro-form">Pro-form</a>
<ul><li><a href="Pro-verb" title="Pro-verb">Pro-verb</a> / <a href="Pro-sentence" title="Pro-sentence">Pro-sentence</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Prop-word" class="mw-redirect" title="Prop-word">Prop-word</a></li>
<li><a href="Yes_and_no" title="Yes and no">Yes and no</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Formal_semantics_(natural_language)78" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Formal_semantics_(natural_language)78" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Formal_semantics_(natural_language)" title="Formal semantics (natural language)">Formal semantics (natural language)</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Principle_of_compositionality" title="Principle of compositionality">Compositionality</a></li>
<li><a href="Denotation" title="Denotation">Denotation</a></li>
<li><a href="Linguistic_entailment" title="Linguistic entailment">Entailment</a></li>
<li><a href="Extension_(semantics)" title="Extension (semantics)">Extension</a></li>
<li><a href="Generalized_quantifier" title="Generalized quantifier">Generalized quantifier</a></li>
<li><a href="Intension" title="Intension">Intension</a></li>
<li><a href="Logical_form_(linguistics)" title="Logical form (linguistics)">Logical form</a></li>
<li><a href="Presupposition" title="Presupposition">Presupposition</a></li>
<li><a href="Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li>
<li><a href="Reference" title="Reference">Reference</a></li>
<li><a href="Scope_(formal_semantics)" title="Scope (formal semantics)">Scope</a></li>
<li><a href="Speech_act" title="Speech act">Speech act</a></li>
<li><a href="Truth-conditional_semantics" title="Truth-conditional semantics">Truth conditions</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Anaphora_(linguistics)" title="Anaphora (linguistics)">Anaphora</a></li>
<li><a href="Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">Ambiguity</a></li>
<li><a href="Binding_(linguistics)" title="Binding (linguistics)">Binding</a></li>
<li><a href="Conditional_sentence" title="Conditional sentence">Conditionals</a></li>
<li><a href="Definiteness" title="Definiteness">Definiteness</a></li>
<li><a href="Disjunction" class="mw-redirect" title="Disjunction">Disjunction</a></li>
<li><a href="Evidentiality" title="Evidentiality">Evidentiality</a></li>
<li><a href="Focus_(linguistics)" title="Focus (linguistics)">Focus</a></li>
<li><a href="Indexicality" title="Indexicality">Indexicality</a></li>
<li><a href="Lexical_semantics" title="Lexical semantics">Lexical semantics</a></li>
<li><a href="Modality_(semantics)" title="Modality (semantics)">Modality</a></li>
<li><a href="Negation" title="Negation">Negation</a></li>
<li><a href="Propositional_attitudes" class="mw-redirect" title="Propositional attitudes">Propositional attitudes</a></li>
<li><a href="Tense%E2%80%93aspect%E2%80%93mood" title="Tense–aspect–mood">Tense–aspect–mood</a></li>
<li><a href="Quantifier_(logic)" title="Quantifier (logic)">Quantification</a></li>
<li><a href="Vagueness" title="Vagueness">Vagueness</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Phenomena</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Antecedent-contained_deletion" title="Antecedent-contained deletion">Antecedent-contained deletion</a></li>
<li><a href="Cataphora" title="Cataphora">Cataphora</a></li>
<li><a href="Coercion_(linguistics)" title="Coercion (linguistics)">Coercion</a></li>
<li><a href="Conservativity" title="Conservativity">Conservativity</a></li>
<li><a href="Counterfactuals" class="mw-redirect" title="Counterfactuals">Counterfactuals</a></li>
<li><a href="Crossover_effects" title="Crossover effects">Crossover effects</a></li>
<li><a href="Cumulativity_(linguistics)" title="Cumulativity (linguistics)">Cumulativity</a></li>
<li><a href="De_dicto_and_de_re" title="De dicto and de re">De dicto and de re</a></li>
<li><a href="De_se" title="De se">De se</a></li>
<li><a href="Deontic_modality" title="Deontic modality">Deontic modality</a></li>
<li><a href="Discourse_relation" title="Discourse relation">Discourse relations</a></li>
<li><a href="Donkey_anaphora" class="mw-redirect" title="Donkey anaphora">Donkey anaphora</a></li>
<li><a href="Epistemic_modality" title="Epistemic modality">Epistemic modality</a></li>
<li><a href="Exhaustivity" title="Exhaustivity">Exhaustivity</a></li>
<li><a href="Faultless_disagreement" title="Faultless disagreement">Faultless disagreement</a></li>
<li><a href="Free_choice_inference" title="Free choice inference">Free choice inferences</a></li>
<li><a href="Givenness" title="Givenness">Givenness</a></li>
<li><a href="Homogeneity_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Homogeneity (linguistics)">Homogeneity (linguistics)</a></li>
<li><a href="Hurford_disjunction" title="Hurford disjunction">Hurford disjunction</a></li>
<li><a href="Inalienable_possession" title="Inalienable possession">Inalienable possession</a></li>
<li><a href="Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Intersective modification</a></li>
<li><a href="Logophoricity" title="Logophoricity">Logophoricity</a></li>
<li><a href="Mirativity" title="Mirativity">Mirativity</a></li>
<li><a href="Modal_subordination" title="Modal subordination">Modal subordination</a></li>
<li><a href="Opaque_context" title="Opaque context">Opaque contexts</a></li>
<li><a href="Performative_utterance" title="Performative utterance">Performatives</a></li>
<li><a href="Polarity_item" title="Polarity item">Polarity items</a></li>
<li><a href="Privative_adjective" title="Privative adjective">Privative adjectives</a></li>
<li><a href="Quantificational_variability_effect" title="Quantificational variability effect">Quantificational variability effect</a></li>
<li><a href="Responsive_predicate" title="Responsive predicate">Responsive predicate</a></li>
<li><a href="Rising_declarative" title="Rising declarative">Rising declaratives</a></li>
<li><a href="Scalar_implicature" title="Scalar implicature">Scalar implicature</a></li>
<li><a href="Sloppy_identity" title="Sloppy identity">Sloppy identity</a></li>
<li><a href="Subsective_modifier" title="Subsective modifier">Subsective modification</a></li>
<li><a href="Subtrigging" title="Subtrigging">Subtrigging</a></li>
<li><a href="Telicity" title="Telicity">Telicity</a></li>
<li><a href="Temperature_paradox" title="Temperature paradox">Temperature paradox</a></li>
<li><a href="Veridicality" title="Veridicality">Veridicality</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formalism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formal systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Alternative_semantics" title="Alternative semantics">Alternative semantics</a></li>
<li><a href="Categorial_grammar" title="Categorial grammar">Categorial grammar</a></li>
<li><a href="Combinatory_categorial_grammar" title="Combinatory categorial grammar">Combinatory categorial grammar</a></li>
<li><a href="Discourse_representation_theory" title="Discourse representation theory">Discourse representation theory (DRT)</a></li>
<li><a href="Dynamic_semantics" title="Dynamic semantics">Dynamic semantics</a></li>
<li><a href="Generative_grammar" title="Generative grammar">Generative grammar</a></li>
<li><a href="Glue_semantics" title="Glue semantics">Glue semantics</a></li>
<li><a href="Inquisitive_semantics" title="Inquisitive semantics">Inquisitive semantics</a></li>
<li><a href="Intensional_logic" title="Intensional logic">Intensional logic</a></li>
<li><a href="Lambda_calculus" title="Lambda calculus">Lambda calculus</a></li>
<li><a href="Mereology" title="Mereology">Mereology</a></li>
<li><a href="Montague_grammar" title="Montague grammar">Montague grammar</a></li>
<li><a href="Segmented_discourse_representation_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Segmented discourse representation theory">Segmented discourse representation theory (SDRT)</a></li>
<li><a href="Situation_semantics" title="Situation semantics">Situation semantics</a></li>
<li><a href="Supervaluationism" title="Supervaluationism">Supervaluationism</a></li>
<li><a href="Type_theory" title="Type theory">Type theory</a></li>
<li><a href="Type_theory_with_records" title="Type theory with records">TTR</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Autonomy_of_syntax" title="Autonomy of syntax">Autonomy of syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="Context_set" class="mw-redirect" title="Context set">Context set</a></li>
<li><a href="Continuation" title="Continuation">Continuation</a></li>
<li><a href="Conversational_scoreboard" title="Conversational scoreboard">Conversational scoreboard</a></li>
<li><a href="Downward_entailing" title="Downward entailing">Downward entailing</a></li>
<li><a href="Existential_closure" title="Existential closure">Existential closure</a></li>
<li><a href="Function_application" title="Function application">Function application</a></li>
<li><a href="Meaning_postulate" title="Meaning postulate">Meaning postulate</a></li>
<li><a href="Monad_(functional_programming)" title="Monad (functional programming)">Monads</a></li>
<li><a href="Plural_quantification" title="Plural quantification">Plural quantification</a></li>
<li><a href="Possible_world" title="Possible world">Possible world</a></li>
<li><a href="Quantifier_raising" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantifier raising">Quantifier raising</a></li>
<li><a href="Quantization_(linguistics)" title="Quantization (linguistics)">Quantization</a></li>
<li><a href="Question_under_discussion" title="Question under discussion">Question under discussion</a></li>
<li><a href="Semantic_parsing" title="Semantic parsing">Semantic parsing</a></li>
<li><a href="Squiggle_operator" title="Squiggle operator">Squiggle operator</a></li>
<li><a href="Strawson_entailment" title="Strawson entailment">Strawson entailment</a></li>
<li><a href="Strict_conditional" title="Strict conditional">Strict conditional</a></li>
<li><a href="Type_shifter" title="Type shifter">Type shifter</a></li>
<li><a href="Universal_grinder" title="Universal grinder">Universal grinder</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Cognitive_semantics" title="Cognitive semantics">Cognitive semantics</a></li>
<li><a href="Computational_semantics" title="Computational semantics">Computational semantics</a></li>
<li><a href="Distributional_semantics" title="Distributional semantics">Distributional semantics</a></li>
<li><a href="Formal_grammar" title="Formal grammar">Formal grammar</a></li>
<li><a href="Inferentialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Inferentialism">Inferentialism</a></li>
<li><a href="Logic_translation" title="Logic translation">Logic translation</a></li>
<li><a href="Linguistics_wars" title="Linguistics wars">Linguistics wars</a></li>
<li><a href="Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li>
<li><a href="Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">Pragmatics</a></li>
<li><a href="Semantics_of_logic" title="Semantics of logic">Semantics of logic</a></li></ul>
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